Chinese-Iranian Relationships under the Shadow of the US: Limited Cooperation and Limited Abandonment (1979–present)
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Abstract
The Islamic Republic of Iran continues to maintain profound economic and political relations with the People’s Republic of China. In the interim since the 1970s China has not only enjoyed diplomatic and economic relations with the US but has become its largest trading partner. Having diplomatic relations with both Washington and Tehran, as well as being a permanent member of the United Nation’s Security Council the government of China has openly served a constructive role, for all its own purpose and intentions, in attempting to bring Iran and the United States (such as in the case of the 2015 nuclear negotiations or JCPOA) back to the negotiation table. The 2015 nuclear agreement in particular was important as it potentially offered both Iran and the United States with a diplomatic opportunity and a platform to de-escalate their tensions, differences, and hostilities. The agreement also meant getting rid of most sanctions and barriers in doing business openly with Iran and hence the opening of the lucrative Iranian market to the Chinese, amongst other international players. Therefore, we have witnessed triangular relations between these three states which have influenced their political, economic, and diplomatic ambitions. This article examines the US factor in China and Iran relations in order to highlight China’s dual policies towards Washington and Tehran. It concluded that the US factor compels the Chinese side to pursue a dual policy towards Iran which revolves around limited cooperation and limited abandonment. At the same time, Beijing tends to tilt toward Tehran in order to send Washington a message that China would not tolerate unilateralism.
How to Cite
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Iran; China; US; Cooperation; sanctions; Chinese-US relations; Chinese-Iranian relations
Akbarzadeh Sh. (2015), “Iran and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Ideology and Realpolitik in Iranian Foreign Policy”, Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 69, Issue 1, pp. 88–103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2014.934195
Alam Sh. (2000), “The changing paradigm of Iranian foreign policy under Khatami”, Strategic Analysis, Vol. 24, Issue 9, pp. 1629–1653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09700160008455310
Almond R. G. (2016), “China and the Iran Nuclear Deal”, The Diplomat, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2016/03/china-and-the-iran-nuclear-deal (accessed February 12, 2023).
Batmanghelidj E. (2022), “Shared interests: Why both China and the West support the Iran nuclear deal”, in European Council on Foreign Relations, available at: https://ecfr.eu/article/shared-interests-why-both-china-and-the-west-support-the-iran-nuclear-deal (accessed February 23, 2023).
Abdollahpour B., Falarti M. M. and Izadi F. (2022), “China’s Belt and Road initiative amid Obama’s negligence and Trump’s pessimism”, Shìdnij svìt, No. 3, pp. 138–159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/orientw2022.03.138
Chen J. (2011), “The Emergence of China in the Middle East”, in Strategic Forum, Institute for National Strategic Studies (INSS), Washington, DC, available at: https://inss.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/stratforum/SF-271.pdf (accessed January 24, 2023).
Committee on Foreign Affairs (2019), “Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism: Chinese and Russian Influence in the Middle East”, available at: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-116hhrg36424/pdf/CHRG-116hhrg36424.pdf (accessed March 20, 2022).
Consulate General of the People’s Republic of China in Chicago (2021), “Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Zhao Lijian’s Regular Press Conference on March 29”, available at: http://chicago.china-consulate.gov.cn/eng/fyrth/202103/t20210329_8993019.htm (accessed July 17, 2022).
Cordesman A. H. (2017), “President Trump’s New National Security Strategy”, in Center for Strategic & International Studies, available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/president-trumps-new-national-security-strategy (accessed October 2, 2022).
Dorraj M. and Blanchard J. F. (2021), “Iran in China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative (MSRI): Bounded Progress and Bounded Promise”, in Jean-Marc F. Blanchard (ed.), China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative, Africa, and the Middle East: Feats, Freezes, and Failures, Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4013-8
Economy E. C. (2019), “US-China Relations at 40”, The Diplomat, January 01, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2018/12/us-china-relations-at-40 (accessed November 21, 2022).
Ehteshami A., Horesh N. and Xu R (2018), “Chinese-Iranian Mutual Strategic Perceptions”, The China Journal, Vol. 79, pp. 1–20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/693315
Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Islamic Republic of Iran (2021), “Ambassador Chang Hua Gives Joint Interview to Tehran Times and Mehr News Agency”, available at: http://ir.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sgzc/202105/t20210519_8924222.htm (accessed August 28, 2022).
Forough M. B. (2021), “Iran between the US and China”, in Ankara: Center for Iranian Studies (İRAM), available at: https://iramcenter.org/d_hbanaliz/Iran_between_the_US_and_China.pdf (accessed July 11, 2022).
Fulton J. (2020), “U.S.-China Relations in 2020: Enduring Problems and Emerging Challenges”, in U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, available at: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-09/Fulton_Testimony.pdf (accessed June 13, 2022).
Garver J. W. (2011), “Is China Playing a Dual Game in Iran?”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 34, Issue 1, pp. 75–88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2011.538296
Gill S. (2010), “China’s Soft Balancing Strategy and the Role of Resource Investment”, Yonsei Journal of International Studies, Vol. 2, Issue 2, pp. 247–58, available at: https://yonseijournal.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/china-soft-balancing.pdf (accessed September 29, 2022).
Green W. and Roth T. (2021), “China-Iran Relations: A Limited but Enduring Strategic Partnership”, in U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, available at: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2021-06/China-Iran_Relations.pdf (accessed November 28, 2022).
Harold S. W. and Nader A. R. (2012), “China and Iran: Economic, Political, and Military Relations”, in RAND Corporation, available at: https://www.rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers/OP351.html (accessed June 25, 2022).
Houghton B. (2022), “China’s Balancing Strategy Between Saudi Arabia and Iran: The View from Riyadh”, Asian Affairs, Vol. 53, Issue 1, pp. 124–144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2022.2029065
Hunter Sh. (2010), Iran’s Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order, Praeger, Santa Barbara.
Izadi F. and Khodaee E. (2017), “The Iran Factor in U.S.-China Relations: Guarded Engagement vs. Soft Balancing”, China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, Vol. 3, Issue. 2, pp. 299–323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740017500105
Jahani E., Gallagher N., Merhout F. et al. (2022), “An Online experiment during the 2020 US–Iran crisis shows that exposure to common enemies can increase political polarization”, Sci Rep, Vol. 12, 19304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23673-0
Motamedi M. (2019), “Policy Change at China’s Bank of Kunlun Cuts Iran Sanctions Lifeline”, in Bourse & Bazaar Foundation, January 2, available at: https://www.bourseandbazaar.com/articles/2019/1/2/policy-change-at-chinas-bank-of-kunlun-cuts-sanctions-lifeline-for-iranian-industry (accessed July 10, 2022).
Motevalli G. (2016), “China, Iran Agree to Expand Trade to $600 Billion in a Decade”, Bloomberg, available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-23/china-iran-agree-to-expand-trade-to-600-billion-in-a-decade (accessed September 14, 2022).
Nikkei (2021), “China’s Oil Imports from Iran Hit New High, Curbing OPEC Options”, available at: https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Commodities/China-s-oil-imports-from-Iran-hit-new-high-curbing-OPEC-options (accessed August 4, 2022).
Pape R. A. (2005), “Soft Balancing against the United States”, International Security, Vol. 30, Issue 1, pp. 7–45. https://doi.org/10.1162/0162288054894607
Rafsanjani A. H. (1985), Majmoueh Khateraateh Rouzaneh: Omid va delvapasi, Nash-re Ma’aref Enghelab, Tehran. (In Farsi).
Center for Strategic Studies (2014), “Ghozaresh Mozakerate Hei’Ate Ezami Az Mo’assesseh Motale’aate Ravabete Beyn-al- melale Mo’asere Chin Ba Masoolan Va Moshaverane Markaze Barrasi haye Estratejike Riyasat Jomhuri”, available at: http://css.ir/Media/PDF/1400/01/25/637539947436608466.pdf (accessed June 12, 2022). (In Farsi).
Reuters (2016a), “China-Led Bloc Keeps Iran at Arm’s Length despite Russian Backing”, available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-uzbekistan-sco-idUSKCN0Z9213 (accessed February 8, 2023).
Reuters (2016b), “Khamenei Calls for Security Cooperation with China, Says U.S. Not to Be Trusted”, January 23, available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/iran-china-khamenei-idINL8N1570HR (accessed June 19, 2022).
Saleh A. and Yazdanshenas Z. (2020), “Iran’s Pact With China Is Bad News for the West”, Foreign Policy, August 9, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/08/09/irans-pact-with-china-is-bad-news-for-the-west (accessed October 15, 2022).
Saltzman I. Z. (2012), “Soft Balancing as Foreign Policy: Assessing American Strategy toward Japan in the Interwar Period”, Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 131–150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2011.00146.x
Scita J. (2022), “When it Comes to Iran, China is Shifting the Balance”, in Bourse & Bazaar Foundation, December 13, available at: https://www.bourseandbazaar.com/articles/2022/12/13/when-it-comes-to-iran-china-is-shifting-the-balance (accessed March 10, 2023).
Scobell A. and Nader A. R. (2016), “China in the Middle East: The Wary Dragon”, in RAND Corporation, available at: https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1200/RR1229/RAND_RR1229.pdf (accessed April 19, 2022).
Shariatinia M. (2011), “Iran-China Relations: An Overview of Critical Factors”, Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs, Vol. 1, Issue. 4, pp. 57–85.
Shi Y. (2011), “How the Middle East’s Uprisings Affect China’s Foreign Relations?”, in East Asia Forum, May 17, available at: https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/05/17/how-the-middle-east-s-uprisings-affect-china-s-foreign-relations (accessed June 16, 2022).
Statista (2015), “Breakdown of China’s Crude Oil Imports in 2014, by Source Country”, May 14, available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/221765/chenese-oil-imports-by-country (accessed April 7, 2022).
Swaine M. D. (2010), “Beijing’s Tightrope Walk on Iran”, in Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, June 28, available at: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CLM33MS.pdf (accessed May 12, 2022).
Tata S. (2014), “US, Iran and China: An Emerging Strategic Triangle”, International Relations and Security Network (ISN), Center for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zurich, Switzerland, January 30, available at: https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/188209/ISN_176024_en.pdf (accessed May 11, 2022).
The Guardian (2013), “China Floods Iran with Cheap Consumer Goods in Exchange for Oil”, February 20, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2013/feb/20/china-floods-iran-cheap-consumer-goods (accessed June 12, 2022).
The White House (2018), “Presidential Memorandum Targeting China’s Economic Aggression”, March 22, available at: https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-signing-presidential-memorandum-targeting-chinas-economic-aggression (accessed September 30, 2022).
Tiezzi Sh. (2016), “Why China’s President Is Heading to Iran”, The Diplomat, January 19, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/why-chinas-president-is-heading-to-iran (accessed April 10, 2022).
Tkacik J. J. (2007), “The Arsenal of the Iraq Insurgency: It’s Made in China”, in The Heritage Foundation, August 7, available at: https://www.heritage.org/defense/commentary/the-arsenal-the-iraq-insurgency-its-made-china (accessed April 10, 2022).
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (2006), “China’s Proliferation to North Korea and Iran, and Its Role in Addressing the Nuclear and Missile Situations in Both Nations”, September 14, available at: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/transcripts/9.14.06HearingTranscript.pdf (accessed July 14, 2022).
Wang L. and Shi X. (2010), Hé ānquán bèijǐng xià de yīlǎng hé wèntí yǔ zhōngguó wàijiāo zhànlüè xuǎnzé, Leadership Science. (In Chinese).
Xue J., Yang X. and Liang Y. (2011), “Zhōngguó——yīlǎng shíyóu màoyì fēngxiǎn yǔ yìngduì”, Practice in Foreign Economic Relations and Trade, Issue 1, pp. 27–29, https://info.cqvip.com/Qikan/Article/Detail?id=36367995&from=Qikan_Article_Detail (accessed January 10, 2023). (In Chinese).
Zhou O. (2021), “China’s 2020 Crude Imports from US Surge 211% to 396,000 b/d, Valued at $6.28 Bil”, in S&P Global Platts, January 20, available at: https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/012021-china-data-2020-crude-imports-from-us-surge-211-to-396000-bd-valued-at-628-bil (accessed May 14, 2022).
Zimmt R., Kanner, Maas O. I. and Avidan T. (2017), “China-Iran Relations Following the Nuclear Agreement and the Lifted Sanctions: Partnership Inc”, Strategic Assessment, Vol. 20, Issue 2, pp. 45–56, available at: https://strategicassessment.inss.org.il/wp-content/uploads/antq/fe-148324862.pdf (accessed October 20, 2022).
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.