From Land to Nation: The Formation of Palestinian Identity (Mid-19th Century – 1920)
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Abstract
The article proposes a three-level analytical model for the formation of Palestinian identity from the 1830s to 1920. The first level – land and community – examines the musha‘ system of collective land use as a supra-confessional institution providing the material foundation for shared identity. The second level – crises as catalysts – analyses the Egyptian occupation, the 1834 revolt, the Tanzimat and the Land Code of 1858 as structural preconditions. The third level – institutional formation – traces the role of the Arabic press, notable families, and Orthodox intellectuals in giving public form to Palestinian identity. The article uses both primordialist and radical constructivist approaches, arguing that Palestinian identity had deep material foundations while simultaneously requiring specific institutional conditions for its public formatting. The comparative argument with Lebanon demonstrates that different institutional filters – not the “natural” character of communities – explain divergent trajectories of identity formation in the two regions. Methodologically, the article draws on three groups of sources: the late Ottoman-era Arabic press and British consular archives; the comparative and theoretical literature on nationalism and confessional identity; and Ukrainian and Arabic-language scholarship, including recent work on land tenure and press circulation in Ottoman Palestine. The analysis integrates Gramsci’s concept of the organic intellectual and Scott’s notion of the hidden transcript to explain how peasant experience of land and confessional practice was translated into elite public discourse. By linking the material, crisis-driven, and institutional dimensions within a single explanatory framework, the article closes a gap in the existing historiography, which traditionally treats these three dimensions separately.
How to Cite
Semyvolos, I. (2026). From Land to Nation: The Formation of Palestinian Identity (Mid-19th Century – 1920). The World of the Orient, (3 (132), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.15407/orientw2026.03.017
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Keywords
musha‘; nation formation; newspaper Filastin; Ottoman Palestine; Palestinian identity; Tanzimat; Zionism
References
Семиволос І. М. (2010), “Земельний кодекс 1858 року та його вплив на формування земельних відносин у Палестині”, в Орієнтальні студії в Україні. До ювілею Л. В. Матвєєвої, Інститут сходознавства ім. А. Ю. Кримського НАН України, Київ, с. 439–451.
Семиволос І. М. (2026), “Муша‘: система колективного землекористування в Палестині в контексті Османського земельного кодексу 1858 року та британського мандата”, Сходознавство, № 97, с. 27–50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/skhodoznavstvo2026.97.027
Abu-Manneh B. (1999), “The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late Nineteenth Century”, in Pappé I. (ed.), The Israel/Palestine Question, Routledge, London, pp. 36–45.
Anderson B. (1983), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London.
Atran S. (1986), “Ḥamula Organisation and Masha’a Tenure in Palestine”, Man, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 271–295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2803160
Beška E. (2024), “From Press Boom to Consolidation: The Circulation of Palestinian Arabic Periodicals in the Late Ottoman Era (1908–1914)”, Asian and African Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31577/aassav.2024.33.1.01
Beška E. and Foster Z. (2021), “The Origins of the Term ‘Palestinian’ (‘Filasṭīnī’) in Late Ottoman Palestine, 1898–1914”, Academia Letters, Article 1884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884
Büssow J. (2011), Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem, 1872–1908, Brill, Leiden. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004205697.i-620
Chatterjee P. (1993), The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton University Press, Princeton. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvzgb88s
Eldin M. F. (2023), “The Middle Class and the Land Struggle in Palestine: Revisiting the Colonial Encounter in the Beisan Valley, 1908–1948”, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 249–261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/1089201X10896552
Fawaz L. (1994), An Occasion for War: Civil Strife in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860, University of California Press, Berkeley.
“Filastin” (1911–1914), in The National Library of Israel, available at: https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/falastin (accessed May 29, 2026).
Foster Z. (2019), “The 1872 Administrative Boundary and Palestinian Identity”, Jerusalem Quarterly, No. 78, pp. 5–22.
Gellner E. (1983), Nations and Nationalism, Blackwell, Oxford.
Gramsci A. (1971), Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith (ed. and trans.), International Publishers, New York.
Hopwood D. (1969), The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Inalcik H. and Quataert D. (eds) (1994), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Irving S. (2024), “Land, Indigeneity and Archaeological Ruins in Ottoman Palestine: The People of Beit Jibrin and the Palestine Exploration Fund”, European Review of History: Revue Européenne d’histoire, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 861–875. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2024.2323199
Karpat K. H. (1985), Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Khalidi R. (1997), Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, Columbia University Press, New York.
Khalidi R. (2020), The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017, Metropolitan Books, New York.
Khalidi W. (ed.) (1987), From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948, 2nd ed., Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, DC.
Kimmerling B. (2008), “The Formation Process of Palestinian Collective Identities: The Ottoman and Colonial Periods”, in Clash of Identities: Explorations in Israeli and Palestinian Societies, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 67–92.
Kimmerling B. and Migdal J. S. (2003), The Palestinian People: A History, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA).
Makdisi U. (2000), The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Manna A. (1986), A’yan Filastin fi Awakhir al-‘Ahd al-‘Uthmani, Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut.
Maoz M. (1968), Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
McCarthy J. (1990), The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate, Columbia University Press, New York.
Mundy M. and Smith R. S. (2007), Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria, I. B. Tauris, London.
Muslih M. Y. (1988), The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism, Columbia University Press, New York.
Porath Y. (1974), The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929, Frank Cass, London.
Sakakini K. (2003–2010), Yawmiyyat Khalil al-Sakakini: Yawmiyyat, Rasa’il, Ta’ammulat, A. Musallam (ed.), 8 vols, Institute for Jerusalem Studies / Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center, Ramallah.
Schölch A. (1993), Palestine in Transformation, 1856–1882: Studies in Social, Economic and Political Development, Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington.
Scott J. C. (1990), Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Shapira A. (1992), Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, Oxford University Press, New York.
The National Archives (TNA), Kew, FO 195 (Foreign Office: Embassy and Consulates, Turkey, General Correspondence), Jerusalem Consulate files, 1872–1908.
REFERENCES
Semyvolos I. M. (2010), “Zemel’nyy kodeks 1858 roku ta yoho vplyv na formuvannya zemel’nykh vidnosyn u Palestyni”, in Oriyental’ni studiyi v Ukrayini. Do yuvileyu L. V. Matvyeyevoyi, A. Yu. Krymskyi Institute of Oriental Studies, Kyiv, pp. 439–451. (In Ukrainian).
Semyvolos I. M. (2026), “Musha‘: systema kolektyvnoho zemlekorystuvannya v Palestyni v konteksti Osmans’koho zemel’noho kodeksu 1858 roku ta brytans’koho mandata”, Shodoznavstvo, No. 97, pp. 27–50. (In Ukrainian). DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/skhodoznavstvo2026.97.027
Abu-Manneh B. (1999), “The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late Nineteenth Century”, in Pappé I. (ed.), The Israel/Palestine Question, Routledge, London, pp. 36–45.
Anderson B. (1983), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London.
Atran S. (1986), “Ḥamula Organisation and Masha’a Tenure in Palestine”, Man, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 271–295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2803160
Beška E. (2024), “From Press Boom to Consolidation: The Circulation of Palestinian Arabic Periodicals in the Late Ottoman Era (1908–1914)”, Asian and African Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31577/aassav.2024.33.1.01
Beška E. and Foster Z. (2021), “The Origins of the Term ‘Palestinian’ (‘Filasṭīnī’) in Late Ottoman Palestine, 1898–1914”, Academia Letters, Article 1884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884
Büssow J. (2011), Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem, 1872–1908, Brill, Leiden. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004205697.i-620
Chatterjee P. (1993), The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton University Press, Princeton. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvzgb88s
Eldin M. F. (2023), “The Middle Class and the Land Struggle in Palestine: Revisiting the Colonial Encounter in the Beisan Valley, 1908–1948”, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 249–261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/1089201X10896552
Fawaz L. (1994), An Occasion for War: Civil Strife in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860, University of California Press, Berkeley.
“Filastin” (1911–1914), in The National Library of Israel, available at: https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/falastin (accessed May 29, 2026). (In Arabic).
Foster Z. (2019), “The 1872 Administrative Boundary and Palestinian Identity”, Jerusalem Quarterly, No. 78, pp. 5–22.
Gellner E. (1983), Nations and Nationalism, Blackwell, Oxford.
Gramsci A. (1971), Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith (ed. and trans.), International Publishers, New York.
Hopwood D. (1969), The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Inalcik H. and Quataert D. (eds) (1994), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Irving S. (2024), “Land, Indigeneity and Archaeological Ruins in Ottoman Palestine: The People of Beit Jibrin and the Palestine Exploration Fund”, European Review of History: Revue Européenne d’histoire, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 861–875. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2024.2323199
Karpat K. H. (1985), Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Khalidi R. (1997), Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, Columbia University Press, New York.
Khalidi R. (2020), The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017, Metropolitan Books, New York.
Khalidi W. (ed.) (1987), From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948, 2nd ed., Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, DC.
Kimmerling B. (2008), “The Formation Process of Palestinian Collective Identities: The Ottoman and Colonial Periods”, in Clash of Identities: Explorations in Israeli and Palestinian Societies, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 67–92.
Kimmerling B. and Migdal J. S. (2003), The Palestinian People: A History, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA).
Makdisi U. (2000), The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Manna A. (1986), A’yan Filastin fi Awakhir al-‘Ahd al-‘Uthmani, Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut. (In Arabic).
Maoz M. (1968), Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
McCarthy J. (1990), The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate, Columbia University Press, New York.
Mundy M. and Smith R. S. (2007), Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria, I. B. Tauris, London.
Muslih M. Y. (1988), The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism, Columbia University Press, New York.
Porath Y. (1974), The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929, Frank Cass, London.
Sakakini K. (2003–2010), Yawmiyyat Khalil al-Sakakini: Yawmiyyat, Rasa’il, Ta’ammulat, A. Musallam (ed.), 8 vols, Institute for Jerusalem Studies / Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center, Ramallah. (In Arabic).
Schölch A. (1993), Palestine in Transformation, 1856–1882: Studies in Social, Economic and Political Development, Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington.
Scott J. C. (1990), Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Shapira A. (1992), Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, Oxford University Press, New York.
The National Archives (TNA), Kew, FO 195 (Foreign Office: Embassy and Consulates, Turkey, General Correspondence), Jerusalem Consulate files, 1872–1908.
Семиволос І. М. (2026), “Муша‘: система колективного землекористування в Палестині в контексті Османського земельного кодексу 1858 року та британського мандата”, Сходознавство, № 97, с. 27–50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/skhodoznavstvo2026.97.027
Abu-Manneh B. (1999), “The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late Nineteenth Century”, in Pappé I. (ed.), The Israel/Palestine Question, Routledge, London, pp. 36–45.
Anderson B. (1983), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London.
Atran S. (1986), “Ḥamula Organisation and Masha’a Tenure in Palestine”, Man, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 271–295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2803160
Beška E. (2024), “From Press Boom to Consolidation: The Circulation of Palestinian Arabic Periodicals in the Late Ottoman Era (1908–1914)”, Asian and African Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31577/aassav.2024.33.1.01
Beška E. and Foster Z. (2021), “The Origins of the Term ‘Palestinian’ (‘Filasṭīnī’) in Late Ottoman Palestine, 1898–1914”, Academia Letters, Article 1884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884
Büssow J. (2011), Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem, 1872–1908, Brill, Leiden. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004205697.i-620
Chatterjee P. (1993), The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton University Press, Princeton. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvzgb88s
Eldin M. F. (2023), “The Middle Class and the Land Struggle in Palestine: Revisiting the Colonial Encounter in the Beisan Valley, 1908–1948”, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 249–261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/1089201X10896552
Fawaz L. (1994), An Occasion for War: Civil Strife in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860, University of California Press, Berkeley.
“Filastin” (1911–1914), in The National Library of Israel, available at: https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/falastin (accessed May 29, 2026).
Foster Z. (2019), “The 1872 Administrative Boundary and Palestinian Identity”, Jerusalem Quarterly, No. 78, pp. 5–22.
Gellner E. (1983), Nations and Nationalism, Blackwell, Oxford.
Gramsci A. (1971), Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith (ed. and trans.), International Publishers, New York.
Hopwood D. (1969), The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Inalcik H. and Quataert D. (eds) (1994), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Irving S. (2024), “Land, Indigeneity and Archaeological Ruins in Ottoman Palestine: The People of Beit Jibrin and the Palestine Exploration Fund”, European Review of History: Revue Européenne d’histoire, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 861–875. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2024.2323199
Karpat K. H. (1985), Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Khalidi R. (1997), Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, Columbia University Press, New York.
Khalidi R. (2020), The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017, Metropolitan Books, New York.
Khalidi W. (ed.) (1987), From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948, 2nd ed., Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, DC.
Kimmerling B. (2008), “The Formation Process of Palestinian Collective Identities: The Ottoman and Colonial Periods”, in Clash of Identities: Explorations in Israeli and Palestinian Societies, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 67–92.
Kimmerling B. and Migdal J. S. (2003), The Palestinian People: A History, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA).
Makdisi U. (2000), The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Manna A. (1986), A’yan Filastin fi Awakhir al-‘Ahd al-‘Uthmani, Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut.
Maoz M. (1968), Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
McCarthy J. (1990), The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate, Columbia University Press, New York.
Mundy M. and Smith R. S. (2007), Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria, I. B. Tauris, London.
Muslih M. Y. (1988), The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism, Columbia University Press, New York.
Porath Y. (1974), The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929, Frank Cass, London.
Sakakini K. (2003–2010), Yawmiyyat Khalil al-Sakakini: Yawmiyyat, Rasa’il, Ta’ammulat, A. Musallam (ed.), 8 vols, Institute for Jerusalem Studies / Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center, Ramallah.
Schölch A. (1993), Palestine in Transformation, 1856–1882: Studies in Social, Economic and Political Development, Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington.
Scott J. C. (1990), Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Shapira A. (1992), Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, Oxford University Press, New York.
The National Archives (TNA), Kew, FO 195 (Foreign Office: Embassy and Consulates, Turkey, General Correspondence), Jerusalem Consulate files, 1872–1908.
REFERENCES
Semyvolos I. M. (2010), “Zemel’nyy kodeks 1858 roku ta yoho vplyv na formuvannya zemel’nykh vidnosyn u Palestyni”, in Oriyental’ni studiyi v Ukrayini. Do yuvileyu L. V. Matvyeyevoyi, A. Yu. Krymskyi Institute of Oriental Studies, Kyiv, pp. 439–451. (In Ukrainian).
Semyvolos I. M. (2026), “Musha‘: systema kolektyvnoho zemlekorystuvannya v Palestyni v konteksti Osmans’koho zemel’noho kodeksu 1858 roku ta brytans’koho mandata”, Shodoznavstvo, No. 97, pp. 27–50. (In Ukrainian). DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/skhodoznavstvo2026.97.027
Abu-Manneh B. (1999), “The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late Nineteenth Century”, in Pappé I. (ed.), The Israel/Palestine Question, Routledge, London, pp. 36–45.
Anderson B. (1983), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London.
Atran S. (1986), “Ḥamula Organisation and Masha’a Tenure in Palestine”, Man, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 271–295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2803160
Beška E. (2024), “From Press Boom to Consolidation: The Circulation of Palestinian Arabic Periodicals in the Late Ottoman Era (1908–1914)”, Asian and African Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31577/aassav.2024.33.1.01
Beška E. and Foster Z. (2021), “The Origins of the Term ‘Palestinian’ (‘Filasṭīnī’) in Late Ottoman Palestine, 1898–1914”, Academia Letters, Article 1884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884
Büssow J. (2011), Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem, 1872–1908, Brill, Leiden. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004205697.i-620
Chatterjee P. (1993), The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton University Press, Princeton. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvzgb88s
Eldin M. F. (2023), “The Middle Class and the Land Struggle in Palestine: Revisiting the Colonial Encounter in the Beisan Valley, 1908–1948”, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 249–261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/1089201X10896552
Fawaz L. (1994), An Occasion for War: Civil Strife in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860, University of California Press, Berkeley.
“Filastin” (1911–1914), in The National Library of Israel, available at: https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/falastin (accessed May 29, 2026). (In Arabic).
Foster Z. (2019), “The 1872 Administrative Boundary and Palestinian Identity”, Jerusalem Quarterly, No. 78, pp. 5–22.
Gellner E. (1983), Nations and Nationalism, Blackwell, Oxford.
Gramsci A. (1971), Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith (ed. and trans.), International Publishers, New York.
Hopwood D. (1969), The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Inalcik H. and Quataert D. (eds) (1994), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Irving S. (2024), “Land, Indigeneity and Archaeological Ruins in Ottoman Palestine: The People of Beit Jibrin and the Palestine Exploration Fund”, European Review of History: Revue Européenne d’histoire, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 861–875. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2024.2323199
Karpat K. H. (1985), Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Khalidi R. (1997), Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, Columbia University Press, New York.
Khalidi R. (2020), The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017, Metropolitan Books, New York.
Khalidi W. (ed.) (1987), From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948, 2nd ed., Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, DC.
Kimmerling B. (2008), “The Formation Process of Palestinian Collective Identities: The Ottoman and Colonial Periods”, in Clash of Identities: Explorations in Israeli and Palestinian Societies, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 67–92.
Kimmerling B. and Migdal J. S. (2003), The Palestinian People: A History, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA).
Makdisi U. (2000), The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Manna A. (1986), A’yan Filastin fi Awakhir al-‘Ahd al-‘Uthmani, Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut. (In Arabic).
Maoz M. (1968), Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
McCarthy J. (1990), The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate, Columbia University Press, New York.
Mundy M. and Smith R. S. (2007), Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria, I. B. Tauris, London.
Muslih M. Y. (1988), The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism, Columbia University Press, New York.
Porath Y. (1974), The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929, Frank Cass, London.
Sakakini K. (2003–2010), Yawmiyyat Khalil al-Sakakini: Yawmiyyat, Rasa’il, Ta’ammulat, A. Musallam (ed.), 8 vols, Institute for Jerusalem Studies / Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center, Ramallah. (In Arabic).
Schölch A. (1993), Palestine in Transformation, 1856–1882: Studies in Social, Economic and Political Development, Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington.
Scott J. C. (1990), Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Shapira A. (1992), Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, Oxford University Press, New York.
The National Archives (TNA), Kew, FO 195 (Foreign Office: Embassy and Consulates, Turkey, General Correspondence), Jerusalem Consulate files, 1872–1908.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.