China’s Belt and Road Initiative amid Obama’s Negligence and Trump’s pessimism
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Abstract
Since the inception of the Belt Road Initiative (BRI) by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 2014, its relations with the United States have entered into a new phase of rivalry and defiance in an eclectic array of political, economic, and security issues and concerns. In examining the BRI factor in US-China relations, this paper juxtaposes the Barak Obama administration’s mild China policy and its cold response toward BRI as well as Donald Trump’s administration’s harsh China policy and its pessimism toward the initiative. In particular by studying and comparing Obama’s presidency (2009–2017) as a Democrat and his approach to the inception of BRI in 2014 by China to that of the Republican candidate and president Trump (2017–2020) we can observe variant approaches, policies, rhetoric and stance on how to deal and respond to it. It then draws on realist and liberal theoretical frameworks, to identify cooperative and confrontational tendencies in US-China relations, thereby offering an assessment on how the US receives BRI. These two variant approaches are significant in understanding the numerous objectives and justifications of internal and external policies on the overall US response to China’s recent growing political, social, and economic clout and influences. This article, therefore, argues that although Obama and Trump have a united voice against BRI, both presidents represent two variant political and party objectives, policies, and approaches towards BRI and China in general.
How to Cite
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Belt Road Initiative (BRI), China, US-China relations, Barak Obama, Donald Trump
REFERENCES
Abdollahpour B. (2018), “An Iranian Perspective on the Belt and Road Initiative”, China Daily European Weekly, September 11, available at: www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201809/11/WS5b971c4aa31033b4f465551c.html (accessed July 19, 2022).
“Advance Policy Questions for Admiral Philip Davidson, USN Expected Nominee for Commander, U.S. Pacific Command” (2018), in US Senate Committee on Armed Service, available at: https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Davidson_APQs_04-17-18.pdf (accessed July 11, 2022).
Bader J. A. (2018), “US-China Relations: Is It Time to End the Engagement?”, in Brookings Institution, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/FP_20180925_us_china_relations.pdf (accessed July 8, 2022).
Blinken J. A. (2015), “The United States and Central Asia: An Enduring Vision For Partnership And Connectivity in the 21st Century, an Address by Deputy Secretary Antony Blinken”, in Brookings Institution, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/20150331_central_asia_blinken_transcript.pdf (accessed August 13, 2022).
Borger J. (2018), “Trump accuses China of meddling in midterms, citing Iowa newspaper ad”, The Guardian, September 27, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/sep/26/trump-china-beijing-election-midterms-interference-claim (accessed July 8, 2022).
Brunnstrom D. and Martina M. (2015), “Xi Denies China Turning Artificial Islands into Military Bases”, Reuters, September 25, available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-pacific/xi-denies-china-turning-artificial-islands-into-military-bases-idUSKCN0RP1ZH20150925 (accessed June 10, 2022).
Buckley C. and Wee S. (2018), “Responding to Trump, China Plans New Tariffs on U.S. Goods”, The New York Times, March 22, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/world/asia/china-trump-retaliatory-tariffs.html (accessed July 14, 2022).
Cavanna Th. P. (2018), “What Does China’s Belt and Road Initiative Mean for US Grand Strategy?”, The Diplomat, June 5, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/what-does-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-mean-for-us-grand-strategy/ (accessed July 19, 2022).
Chance A. (2016), American Perspectives on the Belt and Road Initiative: Sources of Concern and Possibilities for Cooperation, Institute for China-America Studies, Washington, DC, available at: https://chinaus-icas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/American-Perspectives-on-the-Belt-and-Road-Initiative.pdf (accessed June 6, 2022).
Chen D. (2018), “The Indo-Pacific Strategy: A Background Analysis”, ISPI (Italian Institute for International Political Studies), June 4, available at: https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/indo-pacific-strategy-background-analysis-20714 (accessed July 11, 2022).
Cheng S. W. (2015), “China’s New Silk Road: Implications for the US”, Yale and the World, available at: https://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/chinas-new-silk-road-implications-us (accessed July 17, 2022).
Clinton H. (2011), “America’s Pacific Century”, Foreign Policy, October 11, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/10/11/americas-pacific-century/ (accessed June 29, 2022).
Coats D. (2019), Worldwide Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, available at: https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/2019-ATA-SFR---SSCI.pdf (accessed July 17, 2022).
Colback L. (2020), “How to navigate the US-China trade war”, The Financial Times, February 28, available at: https://www.ft.com/content/6124beb8-5724-11ea-abe5-8e03987b7b20 (accessed July 14, 2022).
Cordesman A. H. (2017), “President Trump’s New National Security Strategy”, in Center for Strategic & International Studies, December 18, available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/president-trumps-new-national-security-strategy (accessed June 17, 2022).
Cronin P. (2017), “Trump’s Post-Pivot Strategy”, The Diplomat, November 11, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2017/11/trumps-post-pivot-strategy/ (accessed July 19, 2022).
Cronk T. M. (2019), “Esper: Russia, China Want to Disrupt International Order”, in US Department of Defense, September 6, available at: https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/1954110/esper-russia-china-want-to-disrupt-international-order/ (accessed July 11, 2022).
Darger C. (2017), “China’s Belt and Road Initiative: An Opportunity for the United States”, in The Atlantic Council, October 4, available at: https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/china-s-belt-and-road-initiative-an-opportunity-for-the-united-states (accessed July 16, 2022).
“Defining Our Relationship with India for the Next Century: An Address by U.S. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson” (2017), in Center for Strategic & International Studies, October 18, available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/defining-our-relationship-india-next-century-address-us-secretary-state-rex-tillerson (accessed July 19, 2022).
Dodwell D. (2018), “Tillerson’s final warning on Belt and Road financing only proves China’s influence on the rise”, South China Morning Post, March 23, available at: https://www.scmp.com/business/global-economy/article/2138539/tillersons-final-warning-belt-and-road-financing-only-proves (accessed July 13, 2022).
Dollar D., Hass R. and Bader J. A. (2019), “Assessing U.S.-China relations 2 years into the Trump presidency”, in Brookings Institution, January 15, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2019/01/15/assessing-u-s-china-relations-2-years-into-the-trump-presidency/ (accessed June 12, 2022).
Ebeling R. M. (2018), “Economic Armaments and China’s Global Ambitions”, in American Institute for Economic Research, August 22, available at: https://www.aier.org/article/economic-armaments-and-chinas-global-ambitions (accessed July 10, 2022).
Economy E. C. (2019), “US-China Relations at 40”, The Diplomat, January 01, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2018/12/us-china-relations-at-40/ (accessed June 13, 2022).
Economy E. C. (2018), The Third Revolution: Xi Jinping and the New Chinese States, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.
Feng D. (2020), China’s Millennium Transformation: The Belt and Road Initiative, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1142/11569
Friedberg A. L. (2005), “The Future of U.S.-China Relations: Is Conflict Inevitable?”, International Security, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 7–45. https://doi.org/10.1162/016228805775124589
Funabashi Y. (2018), “Toward a free and open Indo-Pacific”, The Japan Times, May 10, available at: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2018/05/10/commentary/japan-commentary/toward-free-open-indo-pacific/#.W9RfXWgzbIV (accessed July 24, 2022).
Gang D. (2020), “Why isn’t the BRI a strategy of China?”, Global Times, January 22, available at: https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1177706.shtml (accessed July 11, 2022).
Garrison J. and Wall M. (2016), “The Rise of Hedging and Regionalism: An Explanation and Evaluation of President Obama’s China Policy”, Asian Affairs: An American Review, Vol. 43, Issue 2, pp. 47–63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00927678.2016.1166892 (accessed June 22, 2022).
Geddie J. and Aravindan A. (2018), “Pence says ‘empire and aggression’ have no place in Indo-Pacific”, Reuters, November 15, available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asean-summit-pence/pence-says-empire-and-aggression-have-no-place-in-indo-pacific-idUSKCN1NK084 (accessed July 19, 2022).
Ghiasy R. and Zhou J. (2017), The Silk Road Economic Belt: Considering Security Implications and EU–China Cooperation Prospects, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, available at: https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/The-Silk-Road-Economic-Belt.pdf (accessed July 6, 2022).
Glaser B. and Billingsley B. (2012), “US-China Relations: US Pivot to Asia Leaves China off Balance”, Comparative Connections, Vol. 13, Issue 3, pp. 29–42, available at: https://cc.pacforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/1103qus_china.pdf (accessed July 19, 2022).
Gnanasagaran A. (2017), “Between ‘Indo-Pacific’ and ‘Asia-Pacific’ ”, The Asean Post, November 18, available at: https://theaseanpost.com/article/between-indo-pacific-and-asia-pacific (accessed July 19, 2022).
Grabow C. (2017), “Responsible Stakeholders: Why the United States Should Welcome China’s Economic Leadership”, in Cato Institute, October 3, available at: https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/responsible-stakeholders-why-united-states-should-welcome-chinas#full (accessed July 5, 2022).
Hart M. (2015), “Assessing American Foreign Policy Toward China”, in Center for American Progress, available at: https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/29160020/HartSFRC-testimony.pdf (accessed July 19, 2022).
Hass R. (2018), “Principles for managing U.S.-China competition”, in The Brookings Institution, August, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/research/principles-for-managing-u-s-china-competition/ (accessed June 7, 2022).
Ikenberry G. J. (2008), “The Rise of China and the Future of the West: Can the Liberal System Survive?”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 87, No. 1, pp. 23–37.
Jia X. (2018a), “US Indo-Pacific strategy is not what it appears to be”, in China Institute of International Studies, June 9, available at: https://www.ciis.org.cn/english/COMMENTARIES/202007/t20200715_2589.html (accessed July 20, 2022).
Jia X. (2018b), “Toward a free and open, but also inclusive and cooperative ‘Indo-Pacific’ ”, in China Institute of International Studies, June 12, available at: https://www.ciis.org.cn/english/COMMENTARIES/202007/t20200715_2591.html (accessed July 20, 2022).
Johnson C. (2016), President Xi Jinping’s ‘Belt and Road’ Initiative: A Practical Assessment of the Chinese Communist Party’s Roadmap for China’s Global Resurgence, A Report of the CSIS Freeman Chair in China Studies, available at: https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/160328_Johnson_PresidentXiJinping_Web.pdf (accessed July 10, 2022).
Kamphausen R. D. (2017), “Development Finance in Asia: U.S. Economic Strategy Amid China’s Belt and Road”, in The National Bureau of Asian Research, November 15, available at: https://www.nbr.org/publication/development-finance-in-asia-u-s-economic-strategy-amid-chinas-belt-and-road/ (accessed July 16, 2022).
Keohane R. O. (1984), After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Kliman D. (2018), “The Geostrategic and Military Drivers and Implications of BRI”, in Center for a New American Security, January 25, available at: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Kliman_USCC%20Testimony_20180119.pdf (accessed July 24, 2022).
Koo G. (2016), “Q&A: China expert Susan Shirk updates her view of Sino-US relations”, Asia Times, March 3, available at: https://asiatimes.com/2016/03/qa-china-expert-susan-shirk-updates-her-view-of-us-chinese-relations/ (accessed July 7, 2022).
Lampton D. M. (2007), “The Faces of Chinese Power”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 1, pp. 115–127.
Larus E. F. and Hargis Sh. (2017), “U.S. President Obama’s China Policy: A Critical Assessment”, TEKA of Political Science and International Relations, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 7–29. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/teka.2017.12.2.7
Li C. (2016), “Assessing U.S.-China Relations under the Obama Administration”, in Brookings Institution, August 30, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/assessing-u-s-china-relations-under-the-obama-administration/ (accessed June 19, 2022).
Liu X. (2015), “New Silk Road is an opportunity not a threat”, Financial Times, available at: https://www.ft.com/content/c8f58a7c-ffd6-11e4-bc30-00144feabdc0 (accessed July 11, 2022).
Liu W. (2018), “The Belt and Road Initiative: A Bellwether of China’s Role in Global Governance”, in Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 10, available at: https://carnegietsinghua.org/2018/09/10/belt-and-road-initiative-bellwether-of-china-s-role-in-global-governance-pub-77204 (accessed June 18, 2022).
Löfflmann G. (2016), “The Pivot between Containment, Engagement, and Restraint: President Obama’s Conflicted Grand Strategy in Asia”, Asian Security, Vol. 12, Issue 2, pp. 92–110. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2016.1190338
Luft G. (2017), “US Strategy toward China’s Belt and Road Initiative”, in The Atlantic Council, October 4, available at: https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/reports/us-strategy-toward-china-s-belt-and-road-initiative (accessed July 3, 2022).
Mastanduno M. (2020), “A grand strategic transition? Obama, Trump and the Asia Pacific political economy”, in Turner O. and Parmar I. (eds), The United States in the Indo-Pacific: Obama’s Legacy and the Trump Transition, Manchester University Press, Manchester. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526135025.00019
Mitchell A. W. (2018), “Anchoring the Western Alliance”, U.S. Embassy in Finland, June 5, available at: https://fi.usembassy.gov/anchoring-the-western-alliance-june-5-2018/ (accessed July 17, 2022).
Mitrovic D. (2018), “China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Connecting and Transforming Initiative”, in Yu C., Song L. and Huang L. (eds), The Belt & Road Initiative in the Global Arena: Chinese and European Perspectives, Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5921-6_2
Mori S. (2019), “US-China: A New Consensus for Strategic Competition in Washington”, The Diplomat, January 30, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/us-china-a-new-consensus-for-strategic-competition-in-washington/ (accessed June 2022).
“National Security Strategy” (2010), in The White House, available at: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/national_security_strategy.pdf (accessed June 22, 2022).
“National Security Strategy” (2015), in The White House, available at: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/2015_national_security_strategy_2.pdf (accessed June 22, 2022).
“National Security Strategy” (2017), in Historical Office. Office of the Secretary of Defense, available at: https://history.defense.gov/Portals/70/Documents/nss/NSS2017.pdf?ver=CnFwURrw09pJ0q5EogFpwg%3d%3d (accessed August 1, 2022).
Nikkei (2010), China Criticizes US Military Report as Impediment to Closer Relations: Resumption of Exchange Now Difficult, August 8, available at: http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXNASGM18038_Y0A810C1FF1000/ (accessed June 10, 2022).
“No Time for the Dalai Lama” (2009), The Wall Street Journal, October 6, available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704471504574449420327844600 (accessed August 1, 2022).
“On OBOR, US backs India, says it crosses ‘disputed’ territory: Jim Mattis” (2017), The Economic Times, October 4, available at: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/on-obor-us-backs-india-says-it-crosses-disputed-territory-jim-mattis/articleshow/60932827.cms (accessed August 1, 2022).
Parker J. (2017), “What Is China’s Belt and Road Initiative?”, The Economist, May 15, available at: https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/05/14/what-is-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative (accessed June 18, 2022).
Pence M. (2018), “Remarks by Vice President Pence on the Administration’s Policy Toward China”, in The White House, October 4, available at: https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-vice-president-pence-administrations-policy-toward-china/ (accessed July 8, 2022).
Peng Y. (2013), “Xunqiu zhongmei yatai liangxing hudong”, Guoji anquan yanjiu, No. 1, pp. 55–66. (In Chinese).
Pillsbury M. (2020), A Guide to the Trump Administration’s China Policy Statements, Hudson Institute.
Pompeo M. (2018), “Remarks on ‘America’s Indo-Pacific Economic Vision’ ”, in U.S. Embassy & Consulate in the Republic of Korea, July 30, available at: https://kr.usembassy.gov/073018-secretary-pompeo-remarks-on-americas-indo-pacific-economic-vision/ (accessed July 14, 2022).
“President Donald J. Trump’s Visit to Japan Strengthens the United States-Japan Alliance and Economic Partnership” (2017), in The White House, November 6, available at: https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/president-donald-j-trumps-visit-japan-strengthens-united-states-japan-alliance-economic-partnership/ (accessed July 24, 2022).
Rapp-Hooper M. (2016), “Counterbalance: Red Teaming the Rebalance in the Asia-Pacific”, in Center for a New American Security, November 14, available at: https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/counterbalance-red-teaming-the-rebalance-in-the-asia-pacific#fn1 (accessed June 29, 2022).
“Remarks by David Malpass, Under Secretary for International Affairs, on the U.S. and Latin America: Partnering for Mutual Growth, Transparency, and the Rule of Law” (2018), in US Department of the Treasury, February 2, available at: https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm0413 (accessed July 15, 2022).
“Remarks by President Obama and Vice President Xi of the People’s Republic of China Before Bilateral Meeting” (2012), in The White House, February 14, available at: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2012/02/14/remarks-president-obama-and-vice-president-xi-peoples-republic-china-bil (accessed June 22, 2022).
“Remarks by President Trump at APEC CEO Summit | Da Nang, Vietnam” (2017), in The White House, November 10, available at: https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-apec-ceo-summit-da-nang-vietnam/ (accessed July 18, 2022).
“Remarks by President Trump at Signing of a Presidential Memorandum Targeting China’s Economic Aggression” (2018), in The White House, March 22, available at: https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-signing-presidential-memorandum-targeting-chinas-economic-aggression/ (accessed July 8, 2022).
“Remarks with Secretary of Defense Ash Carter, Australian Foreign Minister Julie Bishop, and Australian Defense Minister Marise Payn” (2015), in US Department of State, October 13, available at: https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2015/10/248180.htm (accessed June 10, 2022).
Report to Congress of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (2018), available at: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/Executive%20Summary%202018%20Annual%20Report%20to%20Congress.pdf (accessed July 14, 2022).
Rolland N. (2018), “Testimony before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission”, in The National Bureau of Asian Research, January 25, available at: https://www.nbr.org/publication/chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-five-years-later/ (accessed July 10, 2022).
Ruan Z. (2014), “Meiguo ‘yatai zaipingheng’ zhanlüe qianjing lunxi”, Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi, No. 4, pp. 4–20. (In Chinese).
Saunders P. C. (2014), “China’s Rising Power, the U.S. Rebalance to Asia, and Implications for U.S.-China Relations”, Issues & Studies, Vol. 50, No. 3, pp. 19–55.
Shattuck Th. J. (2018), “How China Dictates the Rules of the Game”, in Foreign Policy Research Institute, July 25, available at: https://www.fpri.org/article/2018/07/how-china-dictates-the-rules-of-the-game/ (accessed July 15, 2022). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429043451-2
Shepard W. (2016), “The New Silk Road Is Not Chinese, It’s International”, Forbes, October 14, available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/10/14/regardless-of-what-beijing-says-the-new-silk-road-is-not-chinese/?sh=10b0fa955ec2 (accessed June 11, 2022).
Shi J. and Churchill O. (2018), “US competes with China’s ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ with US$113 million Asian investment programme”, South China Morning Post, July 30, available at: https://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2157381/us-competes-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-new-asian-investment (accessed July 22, 2022).
Smith J. M. (2018), “China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Strategic Implications and International Opposition”, in The Heritage Foundation, No. 3331, August 9, available at: https://www.heritage.org/sites/default/files/2018-08/BG3331_2.pdf (accessed August 1, 2022).
Storey I. and Cook M. (2018), “The Trump Administration and Southeast Asia: America’s Asia Policy Crystalizes”, ISEAS Perspective, No. 77, available at: iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2018_77@50.pdf (accessed July 22, 2022).
Sun W. (2012), “Asia pivot targets Beijing”, The Global Times, November 22, available at: www.globaltimes.cn/content/745991.shtml (accessed June 29, 2022).
Sutter R. (2010), US-China Relations: Perilous Past, Pragmatic Present, Rowman & Littlefield, London.
Sutter R. (2019), “ISSF Policy Series: Sutter on Trump’s China Policy: Bi-partisan Hardening, Uncertain Resolve”, in H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online, January 17, available at: https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/discussions/3569933/issf-policy-series-sutter-trump%E2%80%99s-china-policy-bi-partisan (accessed June 13, 2022).
Sutter et al. (2013), Balancing acts: the U.S. rebalance and Asia-Pacific stability, Sigur Center for Asian Studies, Washington, available at: https://www2.gwu.edu/~sigur/assets/docs/BalancingActs_Compiled1.pdf (accessed June 29, 2022).
Swaine M. D. (2018), “Creating an Unstable Asia: the U.S. ‘Free and Open Indo-Pacific’ Strategy”, in Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, March 2, available at: http://carnegieendowment.org/2018/03/02/creating-unstable-asia-u.s.-free-and-open-indo-pacific-strategy-pub-75720 (accessed July 23, 2022).
Thorne D. and Spevack B. (2017), Harbored Ambitions: How China’s Port Investments Are Strategically Reshaping the Indo-Pacific, Center for Advanced Defense Studies, Washington DC.
Tillerson R. W. (2017), “On ‘Meeting the Foreign Policy Challenges of 2017 and Beyond’ ”, in U.S. Embassy in Indonesia, available at: https://www.state.gov/secretary/20172018tillerson/remarks/2017/12/276570.htm# (accessed August 1, 2022).
Tiezzi Sh. (2018), “Another US-China Dialogue Bites the Dust”, The Diplomat, October 2, available at: https://thediplomat.com/2018/10/another-us-china-dialogue-bites-the-dust/ (accessed June 28, 2022).
“Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road” (2015), in Belt and Road Portal, March 30, available at: https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/qwyw/qwfb/1084.htm (accessed July 10, 2022).
Wang J. (2012), “Zhongguo diyuan zhanlue de zai pingheng”, The Global Times, October 17, available at: http://opinion.huanqiu.com/opinion_world/2012-10/3193760.html (accessed June 10, 2022). (In Chinese).
Wang Y. (2015), “China’s ‘New Silk Road’: A Case Study in EU-China Relations”, in Amighini A. and Berkofsky A. (eds), Xi’s Policy Gambles: The Bumpy Road Ahead, ISPI, Milan.
Wang Y. (2016), The Belt and Road: What Will China Offer the World in Its Rise, New World Press, Beijing.
Wang Y. (2017), China Connects the World: What Behind the Belt and Road Initiative, China Intercontinental Press, Beijing.
Wang Y. (2018), “Foreign Minister Wang Yi Meets the Press”, in Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China, available at: https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/ceom//eng/zgyw/t1540928.htm (accessed July 22, 2022).
Watanabe T. (2017), “US Engagement Policy toward China: Realism, Liberalism, and Pragmatism”, Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, Vol. 2, Issue 2, pp. 3–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/24761028.2013.11869060 (accessed July 29, 2022).
Wu X. (2018), “New Phase of the United States’ China Policy under the Trump Administration”, China International Studies, Vol. 71, pp. 5–24.
Wuthnow J. (2018), “From Friend to Foe-ish: Washington’s Negative Turn on the Belt and Road Initiative”, in The Asan Institute for Policy Studies, May 21, available at: www.theasanforum.org/from-friend-to-foe-ish-washingtons-negative-turn-on-the-belt-and-road-initiative/ (accessed July 17, 2022).
“Xi says ready to boost China-U.S. ties from new starting point with Trump” (2017), Xinhua, available at: www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-04/07/c_136190556.htm (accessed June 10, 2022).
Xie T. and Page B. I. (2010), “Americans And The Rise Of China As A World Power”, Journal of Contemporary China, Vol. 19, Issue 65, pp. 479–501. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670561003666095
Yidaiyilu (2019), available at: https://www.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/info/iList.jsp?cat_id=10037&cur_page=1 (accessed June 5, 2022).
Zhou J. (2017), “Are the Conflicts between the U.S. and China Manageable?”, Contemporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Relations: An International Journal, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 1075–1108.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.